Neonicotinoids are a widely used neurotoxic pesticide, which are utilized in more than 120 countries, representing a global market value of 2.6 billion dollars. Recently the European Union has expanded its ban of the neonicotinoids clothianidin, thiamethoxam, and imidacloprid for their environmental risks — specifically, their risk to pollinators. This paper will serve to examine these risks and the deleterious effects that neonicotinoids may elicit on hive health, as well as the physiological underpinnings that may contribute to Colony Collapse Disorder. Furthermore, this paper will examine additional effects of neonicotinoids, such as their impact on aquatic ecosystems, mesocosms, and birds. Scientists have found that pulses of neonicotinoids can restructure the biological makeup of invertebrate communities, producing cascading effects up the trophic pyramid. Furthermore, the pervasive use of neonicotinoids has also been found to threaten birds, where neonicotinoids have been linked to a 3.5 percent annual reduction in insectivorous bird populations in the Netherlands. Considering these risks, this paper will analyze the 2013 European moratorium of neonicotinoids, where the abatements of three neonicotinoids have been found to produce many environmental and economic consequences. I propose that instead of a ban, farmers should integrate a mycorrhizae fungal symbiont and a Calcium spray into their agricultural routine. This may help plants fight against aphids and viral diseases by strengthening physiological defenses, such as increasing induced resistance and the efficacy of their sieve clogging proteins.
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